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| UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.} 



OUTLINE 



OF 



ROMAN, CONTINENTAL, AND 
ENGLISH METHODS 



OF 



LATIN PRONUNCIATION 



By D. B. KING, 



LAFAYETTE COLLEGE. 



BOSTON: 
GINN AND HEATH. 



*=== 



LATIN PRONUNCIATION: 



A BRIEF OUTLINE 



OF THE 



ROMAN, CONTINENTAL, AND ENGLISH METHODS, 



BY 



/ 

D. B. KING, 

Adjunct Professor of Latin in Lafayette College. 



BOSTON : 

PUBLISHED BY GINN & HEATH. 

1880. 



rv 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by 

D. B. KING, 
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washing* 



ton. 



J. S. Gushing, Printer, 75 Milk St., Boston. 



PREFACE. 



THE following pages contain a few explanatory and 
historical paragraphs on the Roman, Continental, 
and English methods of pronouncing Latin, and a brief 
presentation of the main features of each. 

The character and arrangement of the studies in Eng- 
lish and Comparative Philology at Lafayette College make 
it desirable that students should have a knowledge of both 
the Roman and the English methods. The students are 
carefully taught in practice to use the English method, and 
to give the rules for the sound of the letters, this having 
been found a valuable aid in teaching English Pronunci- 
ation and the Philology of the English language. A knowl- 
edge of the Roman method, giving the sounds, in the 
main, as we believe Cicero and Virgil gave them, is re- 
quired, as a matter of historical information and culture, 
and as an important aid in determining the derivations of 
words and the laws of phonetic change, and in illustrating 
the principles of Comparative Philology. 

We have therefore needed for the use of our students 
a somewhat fuller presentation of both methods than is 

3 



PREFACE. 



found in the grammars in common use. I have thought 
that a brief outline of the three methods used in this 
country might be of some interest and value to those who 
are learning to pronounce Latin, -supplementing the facts 
given in the ordinary grammars, - and to those who desire 
some general information on the subject. 

D. B. K. 

Lafayette College, 
Easton, Pa., January 23, 1880. 



THE ROMAN METHOD. 

THE Roman method aims to give the letters the same 
sounds as were heard from educated speakers in the 
Augustan period. The chief means of ascertaining these 
sounds are: (i) The statements of ancient writers, — par- 
ticularly the grammarians ; (2) The traditions of scholars,— 
particularly the monks ; (3) The Greek representations of 
the Latin sounds ; (4) The orthography of the language it- 
self; (5) The pronunciation of the Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, and French, — the descendants of the Latin; and, 
(6) The general principles of Phonology. 

(1) Varro, Cicero, Qiiintilian, Velius Longus, and many 
other writers have undertaken to describe or have made inci- 
dental allusions to the sounds of the letters. These writers, it 
seems, knew comparatively little about the physiology of the 
organs of speech and the laws of Phonology. This lack of 
knowledge, added to the difficulty always found of intelligibly 
describing vocal sounds, and the obscure and sometimes 
apparently contradictory statements of the writers, some of 
whom lived centuries apart, makes corroborative testimony 
from other sources quite necessary. 

(2) The natural tendency to conform the sounds of the 
letters of another language to the sounds of the same letters 
similarly situated in one's own speech, makes the traditional 
pronunciation rather unreliable. The constant and unbroken 
use of the Latin, in the services of the Roman church, makes 
a tradition of some value, though the priests no doubt very 
often conformed the pronunciation of the Latin to their own 

5 



LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 



vernaculars, as we find them doing now. The rhymes of the 
Latin hymns belong to so recent a period as to be of scarcely 
any value in determining the pronunciation of the Augustan 
Latin. 

(3) The Greek representations of the Latin sounds are 
a great aid in determining the character of the latter and 
would be still more valuable if we knew just how the Greeks 
pronounced all the letters. 

(4) It is generally conceded that the orthography of the 
Latin was for the most part phonetic. No doubt there were 
many exceptions, and, we know, there were not a few varia- 
tions and changes from time to time. Julius C«esar, Augustus 
and Claudius revised the orthography in the direction of the 
phonetic method. And yet we find inscriptions and mis- 
spellings—apparently phonetic — differing from the estab- 
lished orthography (« Cacography is always a surer guide to 
pronunciation than orthography." — Ellis) . It may be that 
these variations in spelling sometimes indicate different pro- 
nunciations, rather than differences between the accepted 
orthography and the phonetic representation of the common 
pronunciation. What we know of Latin orthography applies 
mainly to the first century of the Christian Era. We do not 
have full and accurate information in regard to the orthog- 
raphy of Cicero and Virgil. 5 

(5) Some consideration must be given to the sounds of 
the letters as heard in the words -mostly proper names - 
preserved entire in the lineal descendents of the Latin, par- 
ticularly in the Italian. It cannot, of course, be assumed 
that the exact sounds have been preserved unchanged, even 
where the orthography is precisely the same in the Latin and 
in one or more of the Romance languages, any more than 
it follows that words spelled alike by Chaucer and Shake- 
speare were pronounced exactly alike by both. 



THE ROMAN METHOD. 7 

(6) The general principles of Phonology, and the laws of 
change derived from the study and comparison of the lan- 
guages of the Indo-European family, are a very valuable aid 
in deciding doubtful points and correcting errors into which 
other clews might lead. 

During the past thirty years, there has been much careful 
and profound investigation into these sources of information, 
and very diligent comparison of the knowledge obtained. 
Corssen in Germany, Roby, Ellis, Munro, and Palmer in 
England, and Haldeman, Blair, Richardson, and others in 
this country have wrought wonders in elucidating obscure 
points, and have, without doubt, succeeded in bringing to 
light the main features of the Augustan pronunciation. The 
ordinary sounds of most of the letters have been ascertained. 
A few points, however, are still in doubt. There were probably 
many exceptions and variations and changes from time to 
time, as there are in all languages. Scientific phonologists, 
who are accustomed to note and measure with great nicety 
very slight differences of sound, will probably never be fully 
able to agree in regard to the precise sounds of some of the 
letters, though additional facts may be brought out by their 
discussions. The knowledge already obtained enables us to 
form a much better idea of the rhythm and harmony of the 
grand old Latin, and is of great interest and value to archae- 
ologists and philologists. Many still prefer the English 
method for practical purposes. No one, however, who lays 
claim to Latin scholarship, should be ignorant of the leading 
features of the Roman. 

A few years ago considerable interest in the adoption of a 
reformed method of pronunciation sprung up in England. 
The syllabus of Professors Munro and Palmer was issued at 
the request of the head masters of the grammar schools, and 
some effort was made to introduce the new system. The 



8 LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 

interest in the new method seems, however, to be dying out 
in England, the head masters having in many cases gone 
back to the old method, and no serious attempt having been 
made to introduce the new pronunciation into Cambridge 
and Oxford. In this country its introduction has been 
much more general. 1 

The following outline of the main features of the method 
will be sufficient for practical purposes : — 

VOWELS. 

The long and short vowels differed only in quantity, not 

in quality. 

a has the sound of a in father. 



a 


tt 


tt 


a " far. 


o 


tt 


tt 


o " home. 


o 


tt 


tt 


o " wholly. 


u 


« 


it 


u " brute. 


11 


tt 


it 


u " full. 


e 


tt 


tt 


a "fate. 


e 


tt 


it 


e " then'} 


i 


tt 


u 


i " caprice. 


1 


tt 


it 


i " thin? 



y has a sound intermediate between the vowel sounds heard in thin 
and moon.* 



1 Those who wish to pursue the study of this method further will find 
interesting information and discussions in Corssen's Ueber Ausprache, 
Vokalismus und betonung Lateinischen Sprache; Roby's Latin Grammar, 
Vol. I.; Syllabus of Latin Pronunciation, by Professors Munro and Palmer; 
Haldeman's Latin Pronunciation; Blair's Latin Pronunciation; J. F. 
Richardson's Roman Orthoepy; Fisher's Three Pronunciations of Latin; 
W. W. Story On the Pronunciation of the Latin Language (N. A. Review, 
1879) ; and Some Practical Hints on the Quantitative Pronunciation of 
Latin, A. J. Ellis. 

2 " e in met, lengthened" (Roby). 8 " ei in deceit** (Haldeman). 
4 " y as Ger. u, but inclining to i, e.g. Muller, which is nearer to Miller 

thanMuller" (Roby). 



THE ROMAN METHOD. 



DIPHTHONGS, 



The diphthongs, commonly found in Latin, are ae, oe, au, 
and eu. Ou is rarely found, u having taken its place. Oi 
is rarely found except in inscriptions before the first century, 
B.C. Each element should be heard, and the two closely 
united in pronunciation. 1 

au has the sound of ow in town. 
ou " " o " no. 

eu " " ew " few. 

ai " " i u pine (originally, but changed subse- 

quently to that of a in fate). 

oi has the sound of oi in voice. 
oe " " oy " boy? 

ei " " ey " they. 

ui " " we " we. 



CONSONANTS. 

C and g are always hard, as in can, get. 
b before s has the sound of p. 
s has the sound of s in thus. 
j has the sound of y in yes} 

n before c> g, q, and x is pronounced as in English, anchor, anger, 
relinquish, anxious. 

u (v), with the sound of w, occurs after q, g, s, I, and r. 
v has the sound of w in want} 

r is always trilled. The r sound in burr approaches it. 
x has the sound of ks. 



1 There is considerable difference of opinion in regard to the precise 
sounds of some of the diphthongs, and the best English illustrations of them. 

2 " o in world, or i in whirl " (Blair) ; "a in fate" (Gildersleeve) ; " owy 
in showy" (Haldeman). 

3 See Roby, Vol. I, pp. xliii-lii. 

4 Roby thinks this was its sound, " originally, at least." But see Max 
Muller in Academy, 1871. 



IO LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 

z has the sound of z in zenith} 

m at the end of a word was sometimes almost, sometimes quite 
inaudible. 2 

ph, ch, and th (occurring in Greek words mostly) represent the 
sounds of <|>, x> and 0, and have sounds similar to those of ph i kh, and 
th 9 in uphill, blockhead, and hothouse. 

Other consonants are pronounced as in English. 



THE CONTINENTAL METHOD. 

The Latin language was introduced among the nations 
which Rome conquered, by soldiers, colonists, traders, gov- 
ernors, magistrates, books, teachers, and missionaries (ioo 
B.c-400 a.d.). During the first few centuries its use seems 
to have become pretty general in the western part of the 
Empire. In France, Spain, Italy, and Portugal, in time, it 
became, in a corrupted form, the language of the common 
people, who seem, for the most part, to have been ignorant 
of the literary Latin from the seventh to the eleventh century. 
In this period the Romance languages had their rise, though 
their beginnings were doubtless much earlier. The rulers did 
something and the church a great deal toward keeping alive 
a knowledge of the Latin. Ecclesiastical correspondence 
and the church services were conducted in Latin, and Latin 
seems to have been the language of whatever learning there 
was in this period. Subsequently, on the revival of learning 
(eleventh century), Latin became the language of Philos- 
ophy, Theology, Law, Diplomacy, and Science. During the 
last two or three centuries it has given place for these pur- 
poses to the modern languages, being no longer used as a 

1 This seems to be the view of Corssen and Curtius. Roby thinks it 
had the sound of / in just. 

2 See Ellis's Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin, pp. 43-73. 



THE CONTINENTAL METHOD. II 

medium of communication between scholars, except on rare 
occasions. 

The Roman alphabetic writing was in many cases intro- 
duced along with the Latin language. The pronunciation 
of the educated classes at Rome, in the best period of the 
Latin, differed from that of the populace. There were, 
besides, different dialects in Italy and provincialisms. What 
and how great these diversities were, it is impossible now to 
ascertain with accuracy. The Italian probably retains some 
of the peculiarities of the rustic pronunciation. It is pretty 
certain that in some of the dialects of the folk-speech c 
and g before e, i, and y had the sounds somewhat like s 
and// that c and g were often interchanged, — originally 
one character, c, was used, g was a comparatively late de- 
velopment, — that s between two vowels had the sound 
of z, — this occurred sometimes in the speech of the edu- 
cated, — and that / was sometimes assibilated with the fol- 
lowing i. There seem to have been, also, variations of 
vowel sounds and of intonation. We may be sure that for- 
eigners who undertook to learn Latin, did not always hear 
the literary pronunciation, and that each nation corrupted 
by its own peculiarities the pronunciation it had received. 
There was a constant tendency on the part of those who 
spoke different dialects of the Latin, as well as those who 
learned Latin from others, to conform the pronunciation of 
the literary language, as they found it in books, to that of 
their own tongues, giving the letters the sounds commonly 
heard in their own speech. This tendency, though counter- 
acted in various ways, in time produced great diversities, 
diminishing the value of the Latin as a medium of oral com- 
munication. " One would have thought all Babel had come 
together," is Erasmus's remark on the attempt, in his time, 
of the European ambassadors to converse in Latin. These 
diversities are still found in the methods of pronunciation 



12 LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 

practiced by continental nations, each one modifying the 
pronunciation of Latin according to the peculiarities of its 
own speech. 

The differences in the sounds of the vowels are not very 
great. Differences in intonation or accent, and in the 
sounds of the consonants, are of more importance. The 
following are the chief peculiarities in the sounds of the 
consonants : — 

In German, before e, i, and y, c = ts ; in French and Por- 
tuguese, s in sin ; in Italian, ch in chin ; in Spanish, th in thin. 
In German, before e, i, and y, g = g in gun, with some varia- 
tions ; in French and Portuguese, s in pleasure ; in Italian, g 
in gin ; in Spanish, g guttural. In German and Italian,/ = y 
in yet; in French and Portuguese, s in pleasure ; in Spanish, 
ch guttural. In German, *# = /, elsewhere, English v. In 
German, sometimes, particularly in words ending in -tion, 
t= ts ; in French, in the combinations -tion, -tial, and a few 
others, s in sin ; in Italian it sometimes has the sound of ts ; 
in Portuguese it is always hard. Variations also occur in 
the sounds of s and x, and of some of the other consonants. 

The following is an outline of the method commonly 
known in this country as the Continental : — 







VOWELS. 


a 


has the sound of 


' a in father. 


a 


a 


u 


a " fat. 


e 


it 


a 


ey " they. 


e 


t( 


a 


e " pet. 


i 


a 


tt 


i " caprice. 


i 


tt 


tt 


i " pit. 


o 


tt 


a 


o " note. 


o 


tt 


u 


o " not. 


u 


tt 


a 


u " rule. 


ii 


tt 


tt 


u " rut. 



THE ENGLISH METHOD. 1 3 

These sounds are frequently somewhat modified by the 
consonants which follow them. Some of those who use the 
method give i, o, and u the short sounds when a consonant 
follows in the same syllable, even though the vowels are long 
in quantity. r 

DIPHTHONGS. 

ae and oe have the sound of ey in they. 
1 " i " ice. 

1 " ou " out. 

eu " feud. 
1 " " no. 

t tt W e " we. 



CONSONANTS. 

C and g before e, i,y, ae, and oe are pronounced like s and j ; and 
in other situations, as in can and go. 

s is always like s in sin. 

vl before a vowel has the sound of w, after q, often after g, and 
sometimes after s. 



ai " 


ei 


u 


au 




has 


eu 




a 


ou 




H 


ui 




il 



THE ENGLISH METHOD. 

The Latin letters formed the basis of the Anglo-Saxon 
Alphabet, Roman alphabetic writing having been intro- 
duced by the missionaries in the sixth century. (See 
March's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, pp. 1-2). The letters had 
the same sounds as belonged in general to the literary Latin 
of that period, c and g were always pronounced as in can and 
gun, i (j) before a vowel was pronounced like y in yet, r 
was trilled, — the r sound in burr approaches it, — and the 
vowel sounds were more like those now commonly heard on 
the continent. Changes were gradually made in the pro- 



14 LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 

nunciation of the words and in the power of the letters. The 
assibilation of c, g, s, x, and / took place, mainly through 
Romanic influences (March's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, pp. 
20-22) ; there was a shifting of the vowel sounds, by which 
the open vowels became closer and the close more open 
or lengthened into diphthongs, and the trilled r was softened 
to the sound now commonly given to r. There was from 
the first a tendency to conform the pronunciation of the 
Latin, which was used in the church services, to the changes 
in the popular speech; though, through the influence of 
foreign priests, teachers, and intercourse, the Latin lagged 
behind the vernacular in making changes. On the revival 
of the study of the classics in England (1490-), when every 
gentlemen was supposed to know Latin and Greek, the ordi- 
nary sounds of the letters as used in English were generally 
given in pronouncing Latin. The pronunciation of the 
Latin, like that of the English and living languages in 
general, was taught by an oral tradition. The tendency, 
however, to pronounce after the fashion of some of the 
nations on the continent, prevailed among the clergy before 
the reformation, and among diplomats and others who held 
frequent intercourse with foreign scholars, and probably 
retarded the changes which the pronunciation of the English 
was all the while undergoing. After the reformation in 
England, when the Latin ceased to be used in the liturgy of 
the church (1550), and when its use as the language of 
Philosophy, Theology, Diplomacy, Law, and Science, had 
ceased to be general (exact dates are, for the most part, 
wanting, — Bacon and Newton used Latin for their philo- 
sophical and scientific works ; Milton was Latin Secretary? 
and protested against the then modern English fashion of 
pronouncing Latin ; the records of the courts, except for a 
brief interval, were made in Latin until 1730), the conformity 



THE ENGLISH METHOD. 1 5 

of the sounds of the letters in Latin, to the sounds of the 
same letters in similar situations in English, became more 
complete. But little change has taken place in these sounds 
since the publication of Walker's Dictionary, and the rules 
given by Walker for the pronunciation of English form the 
basis of the English method, as now taught. 

No one, of course, claims that the sounds given by this 
method are the same as those given to the same letters by 
the Romans of Cicero's time, nor that by it alone an elegant 
or even a correct pronunciation of English can be acquired. 
There is no language whose pronunciation can be learned 
accurately by rule. The English is particularly full of pecu- 
liarities and exceptions. And yet the English method of 
pronouncing Latin affords an excellent opportunity for drill 
in some of the most important principles of English pronun- 
ciation, and is besides an excellent discipline. It is therefore 
of practical value to English-speaking people. Whatever will 
give us a more ready and accurate use of our mother tongue 
is a gain. 

A very large proportion of our words, — proper names, 
philosophical, theological, legal, technical, and scientific 
terms, — as well as a very large number of the words in com- 
mon use, are found in the same or in a slightly different form 
in Latin. Great confusion in the pronunciation of English 
must ultimately result from the constant practice, on the part 
of students, of using for these words in the Latin a pronun- 
ciation differing so much from the English. Thus far some 
effort has been made, on the part of some who practice the 
Roman method, to avoid this confusion, by giving the English 
sounds in pronouncing proper names that are in common 
use in English, and that are found in the same form in 
English and Latin. But it is not easy to teach students 
always to make this distinction. The tendency will naturally 



l6 LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 

be to pronounce proper names whose spelling has not been 
changed, even when used as English words, according to 
the Roman method. Scientific and technical terms will 
in time share the same fate, and many other words will 
doubtless follow the fashion. It is hard to draw the line. 
Those who have practised the Continental method often 
show peculiarities in the sounds of their vowels, substituting 
occasionally a continental for an English vowel. And now, 
though the new pronunciation is just coming into use, we 
begin to hear complaints of uncouth consonantal sounds 
introduced through its influence. 

The unusualness of the sounds of the words, even of 
those whose derivatives are very familiar in English, when 
pronounced by the Roman or a Continental method, makes 
the Latin seem very remote and strange, — quite an unknown 
tongue to boys. But when the English sounds are given to 
Latin words, most of which are found in some form in Eng- 
lish, the words and language seem much nearer and more 
closely- allied to our own. The general adoption of the Roman 
or a Continental method would therefore be likely to deter 
some students from beginning the study of Latin. Then, in 
many cases, beginners would not see so quickly the relation 
of the Latin to the English words, and the first steps in the 
study of Latin would in consequence often be less pleasant 
and profitable. Too few now study Latin. It would be a 
pity to deter any from beginning, and retard others in pur- 
suing the study of the language by adopting a system of 
pronunciation that sounds strange to English ears. If Eng- 
lish spelling reformers succeed in getting English people to 
adopt a system of phonetic spelling, it will then be desirable 
to adopt the Roman or phonetic system for the Latin also. 

The following rules, — taken in part from Harkness's and 
Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammars, — comprise the 



THE ENGLISH METHOD. I 7 

main features of the English method. Some of them are 
of extensive and general application in English, some have 
but few applications, and to others there are many excep- 
tions. Proper names, and other words derived from the 
Latin with little or no change, will be found to furnish the 
best illustrations of the application of these rules to English 
words. 

VOWELS. 

The long sounds are those heard in the English words, 
mate, mete, mite, mote, mute, and type ; the short sounds, 
those heard in mat, met, fit, not, nut, and myth. These 
sounds are sometimes modified by the combinations of con- 
sonants which accompany them : — 

I. Final vowels have their long English sounds ; l te, belli, 
bello, fructu. 

(a) a final or unaccented has the sound of a in Cuba; arnica, 
America. 

(j&) Some give a final in monosyllables the long sound, and both i's in tibi and 
sibi the short sounds. 

II. In final syllables ending in a consonant, vowels have 
their short English sounds ; mensas, servis, compos, servus. 

(c) In es final, os final in plurals, and in post, the vowels have then- 
long sounds ; quies, Hercules, servos. 

(d) When one part of a compound is entire, and ends in a conso- 
nant, a vowel before such consonant has the same sound as in the 
simple word ; velut, sicut, abit, alpesque, postquam. 

(6) For purposes of pronunciation, etiam and quoniam are not considered as 
compounds. 

\f) o in derivatives of post has the short sound. 

III. In a penultimate or in an unaccented syllable, not 
final, a vowel before a single consonant, or a mute followed 

1 The marks — and u indicate long and short sounds, and have no 
reference to quantity. 



l8 LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 

by / or r, has its long English sound ; satis, agrum, deb'eba- 
tur, niemoria, metropolis. 

(g*) i or y» * n an y unaccented syllable except the first or last, has 
its short sound ; inimicus, justifia. 

(22) i, in the first syllable of a word, when followed by an accented 
vowel, has its long sound; sometimes, also, when it stands alone before 
a single consonant ; Ionia, idea, Italia, divinus. 

(i) vl, when followed by bl, and a, e, i, or o, when followed by gl or 
//, has its short sound ; Sublicius, atlas. 

IV. Before another vowel, or a diphthong, a vowel has its 
long English sound ; ea, habeo, riihilo (h is not regarded as 
a consonant) . 

(For a, i, and y, unaccented, see &, I, g, and 22.) 

( j) u, when followed by a vowel, has the sound of w, after q, often 
after g, and sometimes after s; quis, lingua, suadeo. 

(k) When i follows an accented a, e, o, or y, and is followed by 
another vowel, it has the sound of y in yet; Maia, Pompeia, Troia, 
Ilithyia. 

V. Before x, or any two consonants, except a mute fol- 
lowed by / or r, a vowel in any syllable has its short English 
sound ; axis, iste. 

VI. Before one or more consonants in any accented syl- 
lable, except the penult, a vowel has its short English sound ; 
inimicus, debitor. 

(2) a, e, or o, followed by a single consonant or a mute before / 
or r, followed by e, i, or y before another vowel, has its long sound : 
alius, etiam, odium. 

(in) u, in any syllable except the last, before a single consonant 
or a mute followed by / or r (except bt), has the long sound ; multi- 
tudinis, Rutulus, publicus. 

(22) a, preceded by qu, and followed by dr or rt, is pronounced as 
in the English words quadrant and quart. 

(o) e, i, and u, before r final, or r followed by another conson- 
ant, are pronounced as in the English words her, fir, and pur. 



THE ENGLISH METHOD. 1 9 

DIPHTHONGS. 

. ae and oe have the sounds e would have in the same situation; 
Caesar, Aenaeae, Daedalus, Oedipus, Oeta. 

au has the sound of au in author ; auctor. 

eu has the sound of eu in neuter ; neuter, 

ei has the sound of ei in height; hei. 

oi has the sound of oi in voice ; quoique. 

ou has the sound of ou in out; joudex. 

ui has the sound of i in ice; huic. 

ei, oi, and ou are rarely used as diphthongs. 

ui is found only in cui, hui, and huic. 

The combinations ua, ue, ui, uo, and uu are not treated as diph- 
thongs, u either forming a distinct syllable, or having the force of the 
consonant w, (J). 

CONSONANTS. 

Assibilation. 

1. Before e, i, y, ae, and oe, c has the sound of s in sin, 
and g the sound of/ in Jest; centum, cinis, cygnus ; coelum, 
genus, gingiva, 

(a) In other situations c and g have their hard sounds. 

2. When ci, si, ti, and xi follow an accented syllable, 
and are followed by a vowel, c and / have the sound of s/i, s 
(except in a few proper names), the sound of z/i, and x the 
sound of ksh ; acies, Persius, natio, otium, odor, anxius, but 
As{sK)ia, likewise Theodosia, Sosia. 

3. When c follows an accented syllable, and is followed by eu or yo, it has the 

sound of sh ; caduceus, Sicyon. 

{IS) t retains its pure sound after s, t, and x ; in old infinitives in -ier, and in 
proper names in -tion. 

( 1 ) s final, after e, ae, au, b, m, n, and r has the sound of 
z; res, aes, laus, urbs, /items, amans, ars. 

\2) s, between two vowels, has the sound of z, when that sound occurs in English 
derivatives in common use; Caesar, musa, miser, residuum, rosa. 

4. X has the sound of ks ; rex> index ; but between e or u and an accented 



20 LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 

vowel, and occasionally elsewhere, it has the sound of gz, while at the beginning of a 
word it has the sound of z ; tixorius, exemfilum, exit, Xantkus. 

5- In the beginning of a word, ch before th t c and p before t, g and m before n t 
/before m, and p before s, are silent. 

All other letters are sounded. 



ACCENT. 

There are three systems of accentuation, — the logical, 
the grammatical, and the rhythmical (March's Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar, page 30). The rhythmical prevailed in the Latin. 
Three different accents were recognized by the Romans, — 
the acute, the grave, and the circumflex. There is some 
doubt about the exact nature of these accents (see Roby's 
Latin Grammar, Vol. L, and Hadley's Essays, pp. 124-26). 

The following rules are now commonly used in pronounc- 
ing by the English method : — 

I. Words of one syllable are accented ; res, quis. 

(ci) Monosyllables are often so closely united with other words in pronunciation 
as virtually to lose their proper accents. 

II. Words of two syllables are accented on the first ; erat, 
satis. 

III. Words of more than two syllables are accented on 
the penult, if that syllable is long in quantity, otherwise on the 
antepenult ; ci7nicus, dominus, unius, volucris. 

IV. A second accent is placed on the second syllable before the 
principal accent, if that syllable is long in quantity, or is the first in the 
word, otherwise on the third ; debebdter, multitudines, multitudinibus. 

(b) There is occasionally a third and even a fourth accent in very 
long words ; exercitdtiSjtibus. 

V. The accent of an enclitic falls on the last syllable of the word 
to which it is attached ; felixque, dixitne, itdque, quibuscum. 

\C) These rules apply also to the accentuation of compound words; admodum, 
undeque, itaque (here que is not enclitic). A very few exceptions are sometimes 
made in cases where derivatives of Latin compounds are in common use in English. 
Perhaps it is better to apply the rule always. 



LATIN. 

Allen and Greenough's Latin Grammar. Revised, 

Enlarged and Printed from new plates in 1877. A Latin Grammar for 
schools and colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar. By J. If . Allen, 
Lecturer at Harvard University, and J. B. Gkee^ough, Professor of 
Latin at Harvard University. 12mo. Half morocco. 329 pages (includ- 
ing supplementary Outlines of Syntax, with new and greatly enlarged 
Index) §1.30 

The features of this grammar to which we invite attention are: 1. The 
scientific form of statement in the Etymology, corresponding to the most ad- 
vanced views of comparative philologists; 2. The comparison with kindred 
languages suggested throughout, especially in numerous brief philological 
notes, and in references to the syntax of Goodwin's Greek Grammar; the 
grouping and subordination of topics in the Syntax, — which contains nearly 
200 cross-references, and upwards of 1,000 citations from classic authors, — so 
that unusual brevity is attained without sacrifice of completeness. 

Leigh ton's Latin Lessons. Prepared to accompany Allen 
and Greenough's Latin Grammar. By R. F. Leightox, Principal of 
the Brooklyn N. Y. High School. Revised Edition. 12mo. Half mo- 
rocco. 352 pages 1.30 

This work presents a progressive series of exercises (both Latin and Eng- 
lish) in about eighty lessons, illustrating the grammatical forms and the 
simpler principles of syntax. Synonymes and Rules of Quantity are intro~ 
duced from the first. The amount of illustrative matter in exercises for 
reading and writing or oral practice is very large, including portions of Viri 
liomre, and Woodford's Epitome of the First Book of Caesar. Full Vocabu- 
laries (prepared by R. F. Pexxell) accompany the book, with questions for 
examination and review of the grammar. 

With each lesson, definite directions have been given in regard to the 
amount of the grammar to be learned. By decreasing the exercises to be 
translated into English, space has been given to increase correspondingly the 
amount to be put into Latin. Some instruction on the formation of words 
has been given, and the references to the grammar on that subject largely 
increased. The vocabularies have also been carefully revised. 

New Latin Method. A Manual of Instruction in Latin on the 
Basis of a Latin Method, prepared by J. H. Allex and J. B. Green- 
OUGH. 12mo. Cloth. 214 pages 1,05 

The "New Method*' contains: — 1. About thirty Ele3IEXtary Lessoxs 
on the form* of the language, and the constructions suggested by the defini- 
tions of cases, moods, &c, accompanied by full Paradigms, and Exercises in 
Latin and English, with partial vocabularies. N. B. This portion of the book 
can be used independently of the Grammar, and is sufficient for a course of 
about a year's study. — 2. Coxstructioxs of Syntax svmmetrically 
grouped, with full references to the Grammar, each topic being illustrated by 
numerous examples, with exercises to be rendered into Latin, so as to make 
a full elementary manual of Latin Composition. — 3. Ox Readixg Latix: 
brief sections on the Latin Sentence, with examples of analysis and transla- 
tion; the Derivation of Words; and Reading at Sight. —4. Readixg Les- 
soxs, with Vocabularies, and Tabular List of Synonymes. 

In the later editions are given a course of " Elementary Exercises" pre- 
pared by Mr. William Deutsch, of St. Louis, followed by a selection of 
lessons from Caesar, especially adapted for practice in reading at sight, and 
designed as a sufficient introduction to the style of that author. 

Six Weeks' Preparation for Reading- Csesar. With 

References to Allen and Greenough's. Gildersleeve's, and Harkness's 
yiammars. Designed to accompany the Grammar and to prepare pupils 
for reading at sight. 18mo. Paper cover, .25 ; cloth . T ... .40 

Allen and Greenough's L,atin Composition : an Ele- 
mentary Guide to Writing in Latin. Part I. Constructions of Syntax: 
Part II. Exercises in Translation. 12mo. Cloth. 198 pages . . . 1.30 
Part I., bound separately 85 

Part First (which is published separately) consists of thirty progressive Les- 
sons, with full instructions, exercises, and vocabulary; and is designed "to 



furnish a sufficient amount of study and practice in Latin composition during 
the last, year of preparation for college, or the first of a college course." 
Part Second consists of about forty exercises in translation, chietly narrative, 
adapted to the use of advanced or college classes; with annotated references 
to the Lessons of Part I., and to the sections of a special Introduction on the 
Choice of Words, the JForm of the Sentence, and Idiomatic Usages. 

Allen's JLatin Composition. Revised in 1879. An Intro- 
duction to Latin Composition. By W. F. Allen. Adapted to Allen and 
Greenough's Grammar. 12mo. Cloth 
This book includes a careful review of the principles of Syntax (beginning 
with Indirect Discourse), with exercises in various styles of composition 
selected from classical authors. Also short exercises for oral practice. 

Allen and Greenough's Csesar. Caesar's Gallic War: 
Four Books. With Historical Introduction, Notes, and a copper-plate 
Map of Gaul. [ With a full Vocabulary by R. F. Pennell, of Phillips 

Exeter Academy.] 12mo. Half morocco. 282 pages $1.30 

Without Vocabulary 1.00 

The text of this edition is that of Nipperdey, important variations being 
noticed. The notes are unusually full in historical illustration, derived 
largely from Mommsen, Long, Merivale, the " History of Julius Csesar" by 
Napoleon III., and the excellent school edition of Moberly. In the earlier 
portions they are especially designed to guide in a systematic and careful 
study of Latin Syntax. 

Allen and Greenough's Sallust : The Conspiracy of Cati- 
line as reiated by Sallust. With Introduction and Notes explanatory and 
historical. 12mo. Cloth. 84 pages 70 

Allen and Greenough's Cicero : Select Orations of Cicero, 
chronologically arranged, covering the entire period of his public life. 
From the text of Baiter and Kayser. With Life, general and special In- 
troductions, and Index of topics discussed. 12mo. Half morocco. 

394 pages 1.30 

Eight Orations. With Vocabulary by R. F. Pennell . . . 1.30 

The Text without Notes 70 

It is the design of this edition to give a full view of Cicero's public career, 
as orator and statesman, extending through about forty of the most eventful 
years of the later Republic. With this view, the selection includes the earliest 
and the latest of his public orations, while the special Introductions cover very 
fully the intervening political history. Besides the orations more commonly 
read in schools, are given the Roscius and Sestius (abridged), with the first 
against Verres and the last Philippic, — thirteen in all, —with one or two 
short passages of special celebrity, for practice in reading at sight. Especial 
care has been taken in the department of Antiquities, which has been treated 
in numerous notes (in smaller type), some of them, — as that on the Roman 
Aristocracy — being brief essays on the several topics. 

The Introduction contains a classified list of all the works of Cicero, with 
the occasions and topics of all his orations. 

Allen and Greenough's Preparatory Course of 

LATIN PROSE. Containing Four Books of Caesar's Gallic War, and 
Eight Orations of Cicero. With Vocabulary by R. F. Pennell. 12mo. 
Half morocco. 518 pages 2.15 

Allen and Greenough's Virgil. Containing the Pastoral 

Poems {Bucolics) and Six Books of the ^3Eneid. Chiefly from the text of 
Ribbeck, with select various Readings, Introductions, Notes, and Index 
of Plants (compiled chiefly from Fee's Flore de Virgile, contained in Le- 
maire's " Bibliotheca Classica Latina " ). 12mo. Half morocco. 372 
pages 1.30 

With Vocabulary 1.60 

The Text without Notes . 70 

The notes of this edition (which are brief and very numerous) are particu- 
larly indebted to Conington, and are designed " to give not only what may 
serve the leavner in the bare understanding of the text, but, along with it, 
some hint of that wealth of traditional interpretation which is more im- 
portant, perhaps, in the study of yirgil than in that of any other ancient 
poet." 



Greeiiough's Virgil. Printed from wholly new plates, and 
fully Annotated by Professor J. B. Greenough, Harvard University, 
It also contains numerous illustrations from the antique. 

Bryce's Virgil. Edited by Archibald Hamilton Bryce, 

D.C.L., LL.D., Senior Classical Moderator in the University of Dublin. 
The Text is from Heyne and Wagner. The Notes are full, original, and 
selected from the leading German, American, and English Commentators. 
It also has numerous illustrations from the antique. It has no references 
to the Latin Grammar, and hence can be used as readily with one Gram- 
mar as with another. 

Part I. Bucolics and Georgics, with Notes. 18mo. . . . $ .85 
Part II. First Six Books of ^Eneid, with Notes. 18mo. . . .85 

Part III. Last Six Books of ^3Eneid, with Notes. 18mo 85 

Part IV. Complete Text of ^neid, without Notes. 18mo. . . .85 
Part V. Notes to the Twelve Books of ^Eneid, without Text . .85 

Auxilia Vergiliana ; or, First Steps in Latin Prosody. By 

J. M. Whiton, Ph. D. 12mo. Paper Cover 20 

Intended to facilitate the mastery of metre and rhythm at the very outset 
of the study of Latin poetry. 

Allen and Greenough's Ovid : Selections from the Poems 
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283 pages 1.30 

With Vocabulary 1.60 

The introductions to the passages from the Metamorphoses (23 in number) 
give the entire argument of the poem, that of omitted portions bracketed. 
The other selections include those of special interest as illustrating the poet's 
life ; and a list is given of all his writings, with their topics and occasions. 
The Notes contain brief instructions on scanning at sight. 

Allen and Greenougk's De Senectute. Cicero's Dia- 
logue on Old Age. With Introduction (on the adoption in Rome of the 
Greek philosophy) and Notes. 12mo. Cloth. 57 pages 60 

Allen's Latin Primer. A First Book of Latin for Boys and 

Girls. By J. H. Allen. 12mo. Cloth. 182 pages 1.05 

Consists of thirty Lessons arranged so as to give a full outline of the gram- 
mar, with brief Rules of Syntax, Tables of Inflection, and interlined exercises 
for practice in reading, compiled from Histories Sacrce. The reading selec- 
tions which follow include Dialogues from Corderius and Erasmus (with trans- 
lation), narratives, nursery songs, mediaeval hymns, &c, being made up in 
great part from modern Latin writers. 

Allen's Latin Reader : Consisting of Selections from 
Csesar (the invasion of Britain and account of the Gallic and German 
populations), Curtius (Anecdotes of Alexander ), Nepos (Life of Hannibal), 
Sallust(Jugurtha, abridged), Ovid, Virgil, Plautus and Terence (single 
scenes), Cicero and Pliny (Letters), and Tacitus (the Conflagration of 
Rome). With Notes and a General Vocabulary. The Notes have been 
adapted to Allen and Greenough's Grammar. 12mo. Half morocco. 
532 pages JU0 

Allen's L*atin Lexicon : a General Vocabulary of Latin, 
with Supplementary Tables of Dates, Antiquities, &c. By J. H. Allen. 
12mo. Cloth. 214 pages l.w 

This little dictionary contains " about 15,000 words of common use, besides 
more than 1,300 proper names or adjectives, and about 200 dates (exclusive of 
the Tables), covering the more important points of classical history and 
mvthology " It is believed to be complete for the entire introductory course 
of Latin authors, including Ovid and Virgil. 



Madvig's Latin Grammar. Carefully revised by Thomas 

A. Thacher, Yale College. 12mo. Half morocco. 517 pages . . $2.55 
A book of the very highest authority in Latin Syntax, and admirably 
adapted to the wants of Teachers and College Classes. 

A Brief History of Roman Literature. For Schools and 

Colleges. Translated and edited from the German edition of Bender by 
Professor E. P. Crowell and H. B. Richardson, A.M., of Amherst 
College. 

De datura Deorum. Translated and edited from the Ger- 
man edition of Schoeman by Professor Austin Stickney, formerly 
of Trinity College, Hartford. 

Remnants of Early Latin : chiefly inscriptions. Selected 
and Explained, for Use in Colleges, by Frederick D. Allen, Professor 
in the University of Cincinnati. 

Critical History of Cicero's Letters. By R. F. Leigh- 
ton, Ph.D., Principal of Brooklyn, N. Y., High School. 

Elementary Treatise on Latin Othography. Em- 
bracing the latest researches of Brambach, Ritschel, and others. With 
a vocabulary of words often misspelled. By R. F. Leighton, Ph.D., 
Principal of Brooklyn, N, Y., High School. 

Selections from the Less-known Latin Poets, viz., 

Catullus, Lucretius,, the Elegiac Writers, Lucan and Martial. By Pro- 
fessor E. P. Crowell, A. M., Amherst College. 

The Agricola of Tacitus. Edited for School and College 
Use by W. F. Allen, Professor of Latin in University of Wisconsin. 

The Latin Verb. Illustrated by the Sanskrit. By C. H. Park- 
hurst. 12mo. Cloth. 55 pages 40 

White's Junior Student's Latin-English Lexicon. 

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Sheep .... 2.55 

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words and phrases are in all cases followed by the name of some standard 
Latin writer, as a guaranty of their authority; and the conjugation of the 
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added. In the preparation of this book, Dr. White has had the assistance of 
some of the best scholars both of Oxford and Cambridge." — Guardian. 

White's Junior Student's English-Latin Lexicon. 

Square 12mo. Sheep. 392 pages 200 



GEEMAN". 

A Short German Grammar for High Schools and 

COLLEGES. ByE.S. Sheldon, of Harvard University 80 

A Course in Scientific German. Prepared by H. B. 
Hodges, Instructor in Chemistry and German in Harvard University. 
With Vocabulary. 12mo. Cloth. 182 pages 1.05 

This book has been prepared to supply a want long felt by English and 
American students of science, of some aid in the acquirement of a knowledge 
of the German language of a sufficiently practical nature to enable them to 
read with ease the scientific literature of Germany. 



